The global tea industry (India; Sri Lanka)

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In this week's assigned chapter, Taylor and Rioux explore the intricate labour relationships and networks involved in the production, distribution, and consumption of tea. They illustrate the breadth of these connections by tracing the journey of the steaming cup of tea they sip while sitting in a café in downtown Montreal. This case study will look in greater detail into the global tea industry in general, and into India, Sri Lanka and other major tea growers in particular.

Introduction

Imagine vast expanses stretching from the mist-covered hills of Darjeeling in India to the sun-drenched plantations of Kenya, and the serene estates of China and Sri Lanka. These regions, each with their unique climates and terrains, form the backbone of the global tea industry—a sector that intertwines tradition, economy, and culture on an international scale. Tea, one of the world's most beloved beverages, serves not only as a daily ritual for millions but also as a crucial economic driver in numerous developing countries.

Tea cultivation dates back thousands of years in Asia, with China often credited as the birthplace of tea. Over centuries, tea drinking spread across continents, becoming deeply embedded in various cultures and societies. The British Empire played a pivotal role in globalizing tea, establishing large-scale plantations in colonies like India and Kenya to meet the insatiable demand in Europe. Today, the industry is a complex web of cultivation, processing, and distribution that spans every corner of the globe.

Video Description

Tea is more than just a drink; it embodies centuries of history, global trade, and labor struggles. This mini-documentary traces its journey from ancient Chinese roots to modern plantations and specialty gourmet markets, revealing colonial legacies, challenges faced by workers, and stark power imbalances within today’s global tea industry. Explore how tea connects cultures while uncovering the realities of large plantations, small producers, and shifting consumer trends.

Globally, tea production is dominated by a handful of countries. China leads the pack, producing a diverse array of teas including green, black, oolong, white, and pu-erh. India follows closely, renowned for its robust Assam and Darjeeling teas, as well as the famous Nilgiri varieties. Kenya stands out as the largest exporter of black tea, benefiting from favorable growing conditions and efficient production practices. Other significant producers include Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Vietnam, and Turkey, each contributing unique flavors and styles to the global market.

The industry's economic impact is substantial. Tea is a major export commodity for many producing nations, contributing billions of dollars to their GDPs and providing employment to millions. In countries like India and Kenya, tea plantations are integral to rural economies, supporting not only pickers and pluckers but also a range of ancillary services from transportation to packaging. However, this economic dependence often masks underlying social and labour challenges that persist across the sector.

labour conditions in the global tea industry are frequently a source of concern. Workers, many of whom are women, endure long hours under harsh conditions for meager wages. The physically demanding nature of tea picking—requiring precise and repetitive movements to select the finest leaves—takes a toll on workers' health and well-being. In some regions, workers face additional hardships such as inadequate housing, limited access to healthcare, and insufficient labour rights protections. Efforts to improve these conditions are ongoing, with initiatives from governments, NGOs, and certification bodies like Fairtrade and Rainforest Alliance striving to promote fair wages and better working environments. However, progress is uneven and often hampered by economic pressures and entrenched practices.

Environmental sustainability is another critical issue confronting the global tea industry. Traditional farming methods, combined with the intensive use of pesticides and fertilizers, have led to soil degradation, water contamination, and loss of biodiversity in many plantation areas. Climate change exacerbates these problems, introducing unpredictable weather patterns, increased temperatures, and shifting rainfall regimes that threaten tea yields and quality. In response, some producers are adopting more sustainable practices, such as organic farming, integrated pest management, and shade-grown techniques to preserve ecosystems and ensure long-term viability. Nevertheless, widespread adoption remains a challenge due to the higher costs and technical expertise required.

The global tea market is also shaped by shifting consumer preferences and market dynamics. While traditional black teas continue to dominate, there is growing demand for specialty teas, including green, herbal, and flavored varieties. Health-conscious consumers are driving the popularity of teas with perceived wellness benefits, such as antioxidants and other bioactive compounds. Additionally, the rise of premium and artisanal teas has created new opportunities for producers to differentiate their products and capture higher price points. However, this trend also intensifies competition, pushing producers to innovate and maintain quality standards in an increasingly crowded marketplace.

Trade policies and international relations further influence the global tea industry. Tariffs, trade agreements, and geopolitical tensions can impact tea prices, export volumes, and market access. For instance, disruptions in major exporting countries due to political instability, economic sanctions, or natural disasters can create supply shortages and price volatility worldwide. Conversely, favorable trade agreements can open new markets and facilitate smoother trade flows, benefiting producers and consumers alike.

Technological advancements are gradually transforming the tea industry. Innovations in agricultural practices, such as precision farming and automated harvesting, promise to enhance productivity and reduce labour dependency. Advances in processing and packaging technologies aim to improve tea quality and extend shelf life, catering to the demands of a globalized market. Additionally, digital platforms and e-commerce are reshaping how tea is marketed and sold, enabling producers to reach consumers directly and bypass traditional distribution channels.

The global tea industry is a tapestry of rich traditions and modern challenges. It plays a vital role in the economies and cultures of numerous countries, yet it grapples with significant social, environmental, and economic issues. As the world continues to evolve, the tea industry must navigate these complexities to ensure sustainability, equity, and resilience. Balancing the demands of global consumers with the needs of workers and the environment will be crucial in shaping the future of this enduring and cherished beverage.

Case in Lecture: Tea Workers in India

Tea labourers in India today face systemic challenges deeply rooted in colonial legacies, with conditions varying across key tea-producing regions like Assam, Darjeeling, and the Nilgiris. These regions, renowned for their unique flavors and contributions to the global tea industry, share a troubling reality of labour exploitation, low wages, and inadequate living conditions.

In Assam, the largest tea-producing region in India, plantation labourers often endure grueling work under formal hiring systems. Wages here remain among the lowest in the sector, despite the region's immense global contribution. Housing is plantation-tied, often in poor condition, with limited access to healthcare and sanitation. Many workers belong to marginalized communities, descendants of labourers brought to Assam under exploitative colonial indenture systems, which continue to shape their socio-economic vulnerability.

In Darjeeling, known for its premium, high-altitude teas, the picture is slightly different but equally challenging. labourers here are central to producing artisanal teas sold at a premium globally, yet their earnings rarely reflect the high value of their work. Seasonal employment is common, and women form the majority of the workforce, hand-plucking leaves in physically demanding conditions. Though Darjeeling has seen some unionization efforts and initiatives like fair trade certifications, these often benefit exporters more than the workers themselves. The cost of certifications and compliance pressures disproportionately affect smaller farms, limiting widespread improvements.

The Nilgiris region in Tamil Nadu, while smaller in scale compared to Assam and Darjeeling, faces similar issues. labourers here often work on smallholder farms or plantations where wages are barely enough to cover living expenses. Women, again, form a significant portion of the workforce, often juggling plantation work with unpaid domestic responsibilities. Certification programs and organic farming initiatives have made some inroads here, but their benefits are largely skewed toward market-facing entities rather than workers.

Across these regions, labourers are tethered to plantations, with housing, basic services, and healthcare tied to their employment, leaving them vulnerable to eviction and exploitation. While unions in places like Assam and Darjeeling have achieved modest wage increases and marginally improved working conditions, employer pushback and weak enforcement of labour laws hinder substantive change.

Community-driven initiatives—such as worker cooperatives, direct trade with ethical buyers, and local training programs—offer glimmers of hope. In regions like Darjeeling and Nilgiris, these approaches have enabled some labourers to gain better pay and working conditions through direct links with buyers who value transparency and ethical sourcing. However, such efforts remain niche and fail to address the broader systemic inequities faced by the majority of tea workers across India.

Ultimately, the realities of tea labourers across India remain starkly at odds with the romanticized imagery of tea production. While Assam, Darjeeling, and Nilgiris each contribute uniquely to India's tea legacy, labourers in all these regions share the burden of an industry that prioritizes profits over equitable treatment. Sustainable reforms, stronger legal protections, and more inclusive trade practices are essential to transform the lives of the workers who form the backbone of this globally cherished industry.

Case in Textbook: Sri Lanka

Although the tea is grown in the Sri Lankan highlands, we learn it is not indigenous to the region. Instead, its history reflects how British colonial authorities, recognizing the area's geographical and climatic suitability, imported tea plants from China, where they were originally cultivated. The British successfully introduced, cultivated, and commercialized tea in Sri Lankan plantations by conscripting indentured labourers from India. This mapping reveals a dense web of production networks and activities connecting thousands of inequitable actors across time and space.

The history of this tea as a commodity is neither particularly unique nor overly complex. However, as the authors describe, the sheer variety of actors involved in its production, distribution, and consumption is remarkable. Taylor and Rioux put it this way:

Tea Workers in Sri Lanka

Picture the rolling hills of central Sri Lanka, a landscape covered in lush green tea plantations. During British colonial rule in the 19th century, large-scale tea farming transformed these lands. Tamil labourers from India were brought to Sri Lanka in the mid-1800s to work the estates, shaping an industry that became central to the country's economy and identity. After Sri Lanka gained independence in 1948, these workers faced significant challenges. Denied citizenship for three decades, they were excluded from many basic rights. This lack of recognition severely restricted their access to education, healthcare, and economic opportunities. Today, many descendants of these workers continue to labour on the same plantations.

Tea is one of Sri Lanka's largest exports, contributing significantly to its GDP and employing hundreds of thousands. Roughly 5% of the country's workforce depends on tea production, and the industry generates nearly $1.5 billion annually in export earnings. Black tea dominates the market, but Sri Lanka also produces green, white, and specialty blends. Key importers include the UK, Russia, the Middle East, and the United States. Despite the global demand, workers often live in poverty. Women make up the majority of the workforce, performing long hours of physically demanding labour for wages that barely meet basic needs. Meanwhile, many men leave plantations for better-paying factory jobs.

The tea industry reflects Sri Lanka's broader historical and social challenges. Ethnic tensions, exacerbated by the Sri Lankan Civil War (1983-2009), disrupted plantation communities and deepened economic inequalities. Colonial-era land ownership structures still dominate, leaving many workers without legal rights to the land they labour on. This entrenches disparities and limits opportunities for upward mobility.

Environmental issues also weigh heavily on the industry. Intensive farming practices, such as pesticide use, contribute to soil degradation and water pollution, threatening long-term sustainability. Climate change is compounding these problems, with unpredictable rainfall patterns and rising temperatures disrupting yields. Unlike competitors like India and Kenya, Sri Lanka has been slow to adopt advanced mechanization. While countries like India use semi-automated systems and Kenya benefits from larger-scale operations, Sri Lanka relies heavily on traditional, labour-intensive methods. This keeps costs high and profit margins thin.

Government policies and market pressures add complexity. Tea exports are vital for foreign exchange earnings, but policies often prioritize boosting production over addressing systemic worker inequalities. Foreign investments in the tea sector tend to focus on increasing output rather than improving worker conditions. Meanwhile, Western consumers' demand for affordable, high-quality tea drives plantation owners to cut costs, often by lowering labour standards.

Sri Lanka's tea industry stands as a paradox. It produces globally renowned tea, yet many workers who sustain it live in poverty. Land ownership remains concentrated in the hands of a few, reinforcing historical inequalities. The sector grapples with environmental challenges, slow technological adoption, and economic pressures. Behind every cup of Sri Lankan tea lies a complex history of colonialism, labour, and global commerce. It's a story shaped by local resilience and global demand—and choices made far from the plantations.

Questions

1. Understanding the Value Chain: Map the tea value chain from cultivation to consumer, identifying key actors and their roles. Reflect on where value is added or lost and propose adjustments to benefit workers and the environment.

2. Labour and Economic Dynamics: Compare labour conditions in India, Sri Lanka, and Kenya. How do colonial legacies influence these conditions today?

3. Consumer Responsibility: Reflect on how consumer preferences for ethical and sustainable tea can drive industry changes.

Exercises

1. Debating Policy and Trade: Role-play as tea workers, plantation owners, government officials, and consumers to debate a policy aimed at improving worker wages and conditions while maintaining market competitiveness. Reflect on the challenges of balancing these interests.

2. Empathy and Perspective: Write a short narrative from the perspective of a tea labourer, describing their daily life and struggles. Compare this account to the romanticized imagery often associated with tea production.

3. Critical Analysis of Case Studies: Use the cases of India and Sri Lanka to explore the systemic issues in tea production, such as wage disparities and environmental degradation. Reflect on similarities, differences, and possible solutions.

4. Global Dynamics and Inequities: Analyze how international trade policies and market dynamics affect tea prices and worker conditions.

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