The global mango industry (India)
The global mango industry is a major force in international agriculture, connecting the tropical and subtropical regions where the fruit is grown with consumer markets worldwide. As a key economic driver for over 100 producing nations, the sector is defined by a wide variety of mango types, complex international supply chains, and evolving consumer expectations.
From Orchard to Market: Production and Processing
Mango cultivation is widespread, with India leading production by contributing approximately 40% of the world's total supply. Other major producers include China, Thailand, Mexico, and Brazil. The vast number of mango varieties allows for cultivation in diverse climates and caters to a wide range of consumer tastes. Harvesting techniques differ based on region and farm size, ranging from traditional manual picking to more advanced mechanical methods.
Following the harvest, the mangoes undergo critical post-harvest processing. This stage involves sorting the fruit by size and quality, followed by washing and careful packaging. Modern facilities often use controlled ripening technologies to manage the fruit's condition and extend its shelf life. The packaging itself is also evolving, with a growing emphasis on sustainable materials. This entire process, particularly the sorting and handling, is often labour-intensive, ensuring that only fruit meeting high-quality standards proceeds to the next stage of the supply chain.
The Journey to the Consumer
Delivering fresh mangoes to global consumers depends on a highly coordinated logistics network. The primary export destinations for mangoes include the United States, the European Union, Canada, and the Middle East. The method of transport is chosen based on the fruit's value and perishability. High-value varieties are often shipped by air freight for speed, while bulk shipments of hardier types are transported by sea freight to manage costs.
The integrity of the cold chain--an unbroken, temperature-controlled supply line--is paramount to prevent spoilage and maintain fruit quality from the farm to the retailer. Nations like Mexico and Peru have invested heavily in this infrastructure, developing specialized cold storage facilities and efficient customs processes to expedite exports. Furthermore, international trade agreements and food safety standards are crucial for ensuring market access and building consumer trust.
A Globally-Integrated Network
The mango industry serves as a clear example of a Global Production Network (GPN), where different stages of production are fragmented across various countries. The cultivation, processing, logistics, and marketing are handled by different entities in different parts of the world, all working in a coordinated system. This global integration requires managing activities across diverse economic, regulatory, and cultural landscapes.
To improve this complex network, the industry is adopting new technologies. For instance, blockchain is being used to provide transparent traceability, allowing consumers and retailers to see a mango's journey from the farm onward. This network is also adapting to pressures such as climate change and new consumer demands. Sustainable practices are becoming essential for long-term viability and meeting ethical expectations.
Challenges
Despite its growth, the mango industry faces several significant and interconnected challenges. Environmental pressures are a primary concern, as climate variability can lead to extreme weather events like droughts and floods that disrupt production cycles and reduce crop yields. At the same time, the industry confronts economic hurdles, including labour shortages in key harvesting regions and intense market competition among exporting countries. This competition demands constant innovation in product quality, branding, and cost efficiency.
Finally, the industry must navigate a complex web of international trade barriers. These can include tariffs, differing plant health and safety rules, and other trade policies that can restrict market access or disrupt supply chains. Successfully managing these environmental, economic, and political challenges is critical for the industry's sustained profitability and resilience.
The Case of India
India is the unparalleled leader in mango production, growing nearly 40% of all mangoes on Earth. However, its role in the global industry is unique and often misunderstood. Unlike other major producers that focus heavily on exports, India consumes the vast majority of its own harvest. The mango is deeply embedded in Indian culture and cuisine, making the domestic market the industry's primary focus. Therefore, while India is the world's top producer, it is not the top exporter; its primary influence is as a massive, self-contained ecosystem for the fruit.
India: Key Facts
- Capital: New Delhi
- Largest city: Mumbai (18.4 million)
- Population: 1.4 billion (2023)
- Official languages: Hindi, English
- GDP (ppp): 17.6 trillion (IMF 2025)
- GDP rank (ppp): 3
- GDP per capita (ppp): 12,132 USD
- GDP per capita rank: 119
- Exports to: USA 19%, UAE 7%, China 4%, Germany 3%, UK 3% (2023)
- Imports from: China 19%, Russia 10%, USA 6%, UAE 6%, Saudi Arabia 5% (2023)
A Network of Family Farms
The structure of Indian mango production is best understood not as a system of large corporate plantations, but as a vast and intricate network of millions of small, family-owned farms. Cultivation and harvesting are typically done according to long-standing traditions, relying almost entirely on manual labour rather than heavy machinery. This hands-on approach is necessary for handling the hundreds of delicate local varieties prized across the country.
The Human Reality of the Harvest Season
The reliance on manual harvesting creates a huge, temporary demand for workers during the brief harvest season. This need is filled by waves of migrant labourers, often entire families who travel to mango-growing regions for temporary work.
This system gives rise to significant challenges, as the work is largely "off the books" and unregulated. Labourers frequently work without formal contracts, leaving them with no job security or social safety net. The conditions are demanding, involving long hours of physical work in intense heat for wages that are often below the legal minimum.
Because this labour system is informal and family-based, families facing economic hardship see their children’s help during the harvest often as a necessity for survival, trapping them in a cycle of seasonal work that prevents consistent education and exposes them to difficult working conditions from a young age. These labour dynamics are a direct consequence of the industry's fragmented, small-scale structure and its primary focus on the less-regulated domestic market.
Video
How they grow and harvest millions of mangoes [12m 14s]
This video showcases the industrial-scale process of mango harvesting and production. It begins by showing both manual and tool-assisted harvesting techniques designed to protect the fruit. The mangoes are then transported for initial processing, which includes sorting, washing, and coating before being packed for the market. The video also details the production of mango juice, from preheating and pulping to degassing and bottling. Finally, it illustrates the process for creating frozen mango chunks, which involves blanching, dicing, quick-freezing, and packaging.
Discussion
1. India's mango industry is a vast and intricate network of millions of small, family-owned farms, rather than a system of large corporations. How does this fragmented structure fundamentally shape the social and economic conditions for the migrant labourers who form the backbone of the harvest season?
2. Imagine a more equitable and sustainable future for India's mango industry. What fundamental changes to the current structure of informal, family-based migrant labour and fragmented production would be necessary to make that vision a reality while preserving the livelihoods of small farmers?
3. Map the journey of a mango from a small family farm in a state like Uttar Pradesh or Andhra Pradesh to a consumer in a major Indian city like Mumbai or Delhi. At each stage (farm, local aggregator, regional wholesaler, city market, retailer), debate and justify who holds the most leverage and why. Discuss how value is created versus how it is captured, and identify the points in this domestic chain where intervention could rebalance the distribution of profits and improve labour standards.
Critical Thinking
1. The text describes India's labour system as largely off the books and unregulated, and connects this to various challenges workers face. Might the problems described persist even in formal systems due to seasonal demand patterns, economic pressures, or other structural factors?
2. The article presents international food safety standards and trade agreements as essential tools for ensuring market access. Analyze this premise from a critical perspective. How can these same standards function as significant non-tariff barriers that effectively exclude the millions of small-scale, family-run farms from participating in the global market? Discuss whether such regulations genuinely foster fair competition and consumer safety, or if they primarily serve the interests of large multinational corporations and retailers who can more easily absorb the high costs of compliance and certification.
Further Investigation
1. Comparing Agricultural Systems: Investigate working conditions and wages in various agricultural systems worldwide, including both small-scale and large-scale operations, both formal and informal labour arrangements. Research what factors most strongly correlate with better worker outcomes across different contexts. Explore how seasonal labour demands are addressed in different agricultural systems and examine which approaches have been most effective at providing both economic opportunity and worker protections. Consider what role government policy, market structure, and international trade relationships play in shaping these outcomes.
2. Food and Culture: Research the relationship between local food cultures, agricultural practices, and economic outcomes in different regions. Investigate how countries balance between preserving traditional varieties and cultural food practices versus meeting international market demands.
Notes: Country data were sourced from the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the CIA World Factbook; maps are from Wikimedia, licensed under Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike (BY-SA). Rights for embedded media belong to their respective owners. The text was adapted from lecture notes and reviewed for clarity using Claude.
Last updated: Fall 2025