Cobalt mining in DR Congo
The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), often referred to as Congo-Kinshasa to distinguish it from the Republic of the Congo (Congo-Brazzaville), is a vast and resource-rich country located in Central Africa. It is the second-largest country in Africa by area and the fourth-most populous, with over 90 million people. The DRC is known for its immense natural wealth, including vast mineral resources, dense rainforests, and significant biodiversity.
Key Facts
• Capital: Kinshasa
• Population: Over 90 million (2023)
• Independence: 1960 (from Belgium)
• Largest city: Kinshasa (population: ~15 million, 19th largest in the world)
• Official language: French
Brief History
The Democratic Republic of the Congo has a complex and often turbulent history. In the late 19th century, it was colonized by Belgium under King Leopold II, who claimed the territory as his personal possession. During his rule, the Congolese people were subjected to forced labour, and widespread violence, particularly in the rubber industry. Millions died as a result of brutality, starvation, and disease, during events that came to be remembered as the Rubber Terror. In 1908, international pressure forced Belgium to take direct control, officially renaming the colony the Belgian Congo.
After gaining independence in 1960, the country faced immediate political turmoil. Patrice Lumumba, its first Prime Minister, was assassinated, probably with the involvement of Belgian, and possibly US officials, leading to instability. Mobutu Sese Seko seized power in 1965 and ruled as an authoritarian leader for over three decades, renaming the country Zaire. His rule was marked by corruption and economic decline.
The late 20th and early 21st centuries were dominated by violent conflicts. The First and Second Congo Wars, involving multiple African nations, devastated the country and led to millions of deaths from violence, displacement, and disease. Despite formal peace agreements, conflict persists in the eastern regions, fuelled by competition over valuable minerals and political instability.
DRC as an LDC Country
The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) is classified as a Least Developed Country (LDC), a status reflecting its significant economic challenges, including widespread poverty, limited infrastructure, and low human development indicators. Despite its vast natural resource wealth, the DRC struggles with political instability, weak governance, and inadequate public services, which hinder sustainable development. The country's heavy reliance on extractive industries, such as mining, has not yet translated into broad-based economic growth or improved living standards for its population. As an LDC, the DRC faces structural barriers to progress but remains eligible for international support and concessional financing aimed at fostering economic diversification, poverty reduction, and sustainable development.
Cobalt Mining in DRC Congo
Cobalt mining in the Democratic Republic of the Congo plays a critical role in the global supply chain, as the country holds a significant share of the world's cobalt reserves. The metal is an essential component in lithium-ion batteries, which are widely used in electronic devices and electric vehicles. The mining sector contributes substantially to the national economy, providing employment opportunities and generating government revenue. However, the industry faces several challenges, including regulatory issues, environmental concerns, and labour conditions.
A significant portion of Congolese cobalt is extracted through industrial mining operations run by multinational companies, as well as through artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM). Both types of mining face challenges related to labour conditions, environmental impact, and governance. Industrial mines are subject to government oversight and corporate policies, yet reports of unsafe working conditions, low wages, and human rights concerns persist. ASM, which involves individuals and small groups manually extracting cobalt, operates largely in informal conditions, leading to additional risks such as inconsistent labour protections and child labour involvement.
The future of cobalt mining in the DRC is poised for significant growth as global demand for the metal rises with the expansion of electric vehicles, renewable energy storage, and consumer electronics. With the country already supplying over 70% of the world's cobalt, increased investment in industrial mining projects is expected to boost production capacity, infrastructure development, and employment. Millions of Congolese depend on the sector, directly or indirectly, from miners and transporters to those in supporting industries such as equipment supply, logistics, and local commerce. As large-scale operations expand and new projects emerge, the number of people relying on cobalt mining for their livelihood is set to increase, further integrating the industry into the country's economic fabric and shaping urban growth, especially in key mining regions in the south like Haut-Katanga and Lualaba.
Travel and Visa Restrictions for Congolese Citizens
The DRC's restrictive borders, weak passport, and stringent visa requirements severely limit citizens' mobility and opportunities. With one of the least powerful passports globally, Congolese individuals face significant barriers to leaving the country or pursuing better prospects abroad. These systemic constraints reinforce power imbalances and restrict personal and economic freedom, even for those not directly affected by forced labour or enslavement. The lack of passport power exacerbates existing inequalities, as it confines individuals to a context where economic opportunities are scarce and labour exploitation is prevalent. This immobility effectively traps many in cycles of poverty, as they are unable to access global labour markets or escape unfavorable conditions. Furthermore, the weak passport reflects broader geopolitical marginalization, underscoring how global systems of privilege and exclusion perpetuate inequality. For Congolese workers, this means their labour is often undervalued and their ability to negotiate better conditions is severely constrained, both domestically and internationally.
Some Questions to Think About
Read the text and view the videos on this page. Then, spend some time thinking on the below questions, and their full implications. (Video settings do not allow the videos to be viewed on this page, as indicated. Click the links to access the videos on YouTube. Login to YouTube may be required.)
Given the above,
• are cobalt miners in the DR Congo merely "cogs" in the global supply chain? What about Apple store technicians who perform repairs, diagnostics, and other tasks? What defines a human as a "cog" in a machine-like system? Is it unfair compensation? Is it involuntary servitude? Is it being constrained by a weak passport in a least-developed context? In less abstract terms: are workers trapped primarily in a terrible labour regime, or are they trapped in DR Congo?
• who is not a cog in the machine, if anyone at all? Are some people entirely free from the supply chain, or are they simply fortunate enough to be born or situated in a more comfortable segment of its intricate chambers?
• could it be that people—workers, consumers, and corporate leaders—are merely cogs in a system they collectively sustain? Has it always been that way? Have global supply chains always existed since the Silk Road or earlier? Does globalization simply signify an increase in the scale of supply chains, or is there something fundamentally different about it?
• is it possible that supply chains have grown beyond the sum of their parts, gaining a life of their own, becoming a self-sustaining force—or have they always been that way? The first novel in the Dune series features the iconic phrase, 'The spice must flow' (Frank Herbert, 1965). What does the author anachronistically mean by this phrase, in relation to modern uninterrupted supply chains, or how people align themselves in accordance with how and where the spice flows?
• am I a lighthouse keeper, illuminating exploitation but never leaving my post?
Presentation Assignment
In your midterm projects, you delved into the immensely-complex world of global smartphone supply chains. From the initial raw material exploration and extraction to manufacturing, distribution, retail, and beyond, you mapped out the complex journey these devices take before reaching consumers. Along the way, you reflected on the challenges, ethical considerations, and environmental impacts embedded within these processes. You then shared your insights and personal reflections on the Discussion Board, to share your experiences with your classmates.
As you move forward, the next phase of the assignment invites you to connect global supply chains with other central themes of the course, while focusing in on the initial stage of raw material extraction. Drawing on concepts from lectures, review videos, and case studies, reflect on the dramatically different lives around the same supply chains, and production networks.
YOUR TASK
Reflect on the questions in the box above without attempting to answer them. Share your thoughts on the questions themselves, but limit yourself to suggesting possible answers without delving deeper. Keep your presentation within eight minutes.
This is an open-source assignment. You may draw inspirations from any source.
Rubric
A: Demonstrates profound depth and highly original thought
B: Shows good depth with some originality
C: Provides basic depth but lacks originality, using several clichés
D: Minimal depth and originality, predominantly cliche-based responses
F: Lacks any significant depth or originality, entirely clichéd or off-topic
Last updated: Spring 2025